PMC

Relative risk ratios (RRRs) of daily smoking among 20–64-year-olds by education. No clear association was found between daily smoking and education among men in 1990–1994 and among women in 1990–2000. Men revealed inverse relationship between daily smoking and educational level since 1996, but women since 2002. Compared to men with higher education, relative risk of daily smoking (vs non-smoking) was 3.72 (95% CI = 2.45–6.35) times higher among men with secondary education and 5.44 (95% CI = 2.78–10.65) times higher among men with basic education in 1996. RRRs were 2.92 (95% CI = 2.01–4.25) and 4.98 (95% CI 3.12–7.94 in 2010) among men in 2010. Compared to women with higher education, relative risk of daily smoking (vs non-smoking) was 1.88 (95% CI = 1.07–3.31) times higher among women with secondary education and 3.67 times higher (95% CI = 1.66–8.12) among women with basic education in 2002. Respective RRRs were 2.29 (95% CI = 1.65–3.17) and 6.62 (95% CI 4.07–10.76) among women in 2010.

Two-factor model of reading comprehension. This model presents standardized parameter estimates. All loadings are significant at p < 0.001. TABE, Test of Adult Basic Education; TOSREC, Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension; PPVT, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; EOWPVT, Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test; ARW, Analogy Real Word Task; APW, Analogy Pseudoword Task; Construct, Morphological Construction Task; BMORPH, Base Form Morphology; DMORPH, Derived Form Morphology; MSkill, Morphological Skill Task.

Trends in daily (thick lines) and occasional (thin lines) smoking by education among 20–64 year-olds. Compared to lower educated men, daily smoking was less common among men with higher education in 1990–2010, but among women since 2000. During the study period, prevalence of daily smoking decreased significantly from 48.7% to 27.1% (p < 0.01) among men with higher and from 55.5% to 48.2% (p < 0.01) among men with secondary education. Daily smoking among men with basic education decreased slightly from 62.5% to 56.6%, but the changes were not statistically significant. During the study period, the prevalence of daily smoking decreased significantly from 21.2% to 17.4% (p < 0.01) among women with higher education and doubled from 19.7% to 40.0% (p < 0.01)] among women with basic education. There were no significant changes in daily smoking among women with secondary education in 1990–2010. No significant trends over time were established in occasional smoking by education among men and women.

Three-factor model of reading comprehension. This model presents standardized parameter estimates. All loadings are significant at p < 0.001 unless otherwise specified (n.s., not significant.). TABE, Test of Adult Basic Education; TOSREC, Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension; PPVT, Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; EOWPVT, Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test; ARW, Analogy Real Word Task; BMORPH, Base Form Morphology; DMORPH, Derived Form Morphology; MSkill, Morphological Skill Task; APW, Analogy Pseudoword Task; Construct, Morphological Construction Task; Morph RW, Morphological Awareness Real Words; Morph PW, Morphological Awareness Pseudowords.